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Shreyansh Bhardwaj
Institute of Law, Jiwaji University
Introduction
One of the various terms used to describe people who relocate owing to changes in their immediate environment is “environmental refugees”.[i] The expression implies that – the motivation for a movement is more generally connected to the changes in the environment than it is precisely to climate change.[ii] There are not one but several terminologies and interpretations of this term owing to the complicated link between changes in the climate and human mobility. The 1951 Refugee Convention[iii] puts forth several very particularly specified factors that may lead to a person’s departure. Environmental factors are not included among these cited causes. Hence, even while the term environmental refugees may be evocative or helpful in discourse, it does not imply that they are entitled to the same protections or rights that are guaranteed to other refugees.
When temperatures rise due to global warming, glaciers, and ice caps melt. This may result in floods and rising sea levels. Increasing temperatures also cause droughts and desertification, which is the conversion of fertile land to desert. Some of these consequences, such as sea level rise, may entirely submerge land, rendering it uninhabitable. Drought, for example, makes it hard for individuals in the area to sustain themselves. In 1995, there were at least 25 million environmental refugees, compared to 27 million conventional refugees. By 2010, the overall number of environmental refugees may probably have doubled, and they will continue to rise gradually for a while post this period since increasing poverty amongst people is imparting more and more pressure on already overburdened ecosystems[iv]. As global warming takes root, up to 200 million people may be affected by droughts of extraordinary severities and lengths, sea-level rise, coastal floods, changes in monsoon systems, and other rainfall regimes. Through this paper, the author aims to draw a connection between climate change and humanitarian crisis (specifically, how climate change worsens humanitarian crisis), while also delving into mitigation and adaptation strategies.
I. Nexus between climate change and humanitarian crisis – how climate change affects or worsens the crisis.
Humanitarian disasters are being caused by climate change all over the globe. Disasters caused by climate change raise susceptibility to human rights violations, endanger lives globally, disrupt livelihoods, cause more displacement, influence the spread of illnesses, and damage public health globally. Resultingly, global temperatures reached 1.15 degrees Celsius (which is above their pre-industrial levels) in 2023, making it one of the hottest years on record.[v]
Implications of climate change on humanitarian needs
Climate change has a significant negative influence on agriculture, water quality, and livelihoods, and it can potentially exacerbate current large-scale conflicts. This notion is said to disproportionately affect people already suffering from poverty, war, and violence. In terms of the humanitarian repercussions of climate change, Africa and Asia are likely to be the most susceptible areas.[vi] Furthermore, it poses significant hazards to those whose livelihoods are dependent on natural resources, notably via agriculture or fisheries. Climate change-related variations in ocean temperature and precipitation are predicted to have a negative overall influence on agricultural output and contribute to altered ecosystems and declining fisheries, which will be extensively harmful to these livelihood sectors. In simpler terms, the hazards associated with climate change are disproportionately larger for those whose livelihoods rely on agriculture and fishing. Smallholder farmers who depend on rainfall rather than irrigation are expected to see the worst effects in the agricultural sector.
Lower work capacity may result from climatic consequences, such as rising temperatures, which will especially damage livelihoods including agriculture. Below mentioned are the case studies of two of the most impacted geographical areas that suffered the cast of climatic change and humanitarian crisis.
Afghanistan at the focal point - Multiple vulnerabilities
Afghanistan’s terrain and climate make it especially vulnerable to natural disasters, and climate change is making life more difficult for people throughout the nation. Decades of strife, agricultural reliance, and extreme socioeconomic misery can convert dangers into catastrophes.[vii] Climate-related calamities like floods, flash floods, avalanches, and severe snowfalls strike 200,000 people on average each year, inflicting huge losses in lives, livelihoods, and property.[viii] Additionally, after three years of drought, more than 250,000 Afghans were impacted by natural catastrophes in 2019 alone from mid-January to mid-April. Massive crop failures are brought on by soil degradation and desertification brought on by drought, but they also reduce the capacity of the earth to absorb heavy and irregular rainfall, which is another effect of rising temperatures.
As snow and rain dumped heavily on the ground, flash floods struck 21 of the 34 provinces, killing 141,36 people and injuring more than 24,0000 Afghans.[ix] The most important and convincing evidence on the said nexus illustrates that humanitarian conflict increases climate vulnerability. Infrastructure is damaged or destroyed, lives are lost, financial stability is reduced, and foreign investment or involvement is negatively impacted by armed conflict. Generally, regions with warmer climates and predominant agriculture are likely to see more conflicts. Disputes also often accompany a greater reliance on the agricultural industry, which is especially vulnerable to climatic shocks.[x] More than 40% of the nations that suffered a food crisis in 2017 had to deal with both war and weather shocks. Disputes (particularly prolonged wars) weaken and make it more difficult to develop institutions, which in turn makes it harder for nations, organizations, and people to manage, adapt to, and prepare for climate change. It is crucial to note that armed conflict often results in a problematic trap, a downward loop in which increasing vulnerability is followed by fresh violence while the root reasons for the conflict continue.
Syria Crisis - How disasters affect climate vulnerability.
The Syrian crisis, now in its ninth year, is the bloodiest war of the twenty-first century and continues to be one of the biggest and most complicated humanitarian disasters in the world. To satisfy their necessities, millions of Syrians depend on humanitarian aid, yet getting it into the nation is still difficult. According to the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) of the United Nations, 11.7 million Syrians would need humanitarian aid in 2019, with 5 million in urgent need.[xi] The United Nations estimates that 6.2 million Syrians are internally displaced and living in host communities and refugee camps. Conflict impacts the capacity of communities and people to manage, adapt to, and prepare for climate change. Syria is an example of how the twin load of climate shocks and violence affects humanitarian needs. The millions of people who live in camps are especially susceptible to climate-related disasters like excessive rainfall and floods. Early estimates suggested that 118,000 individuals were impacted. Their houses were flooded, damaged, or destroyed, along with their household goods, food supplies, and clothing and bedding. The intensification of hostilities in northeast Syria during the first quarter of 2019 prompted the migration of thousands of civilians to Al Hassakeh’s flood-ravaged villages and camps.
II. Mitigation and adaptation strategies
Humanitarian organizations strive to mitigate food insecurity and create chances for livelihood to lessen the combined impact of conflict and climatic shocks. Climate change can be slowed down by minimizing the circulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This can be done by cutting down on sources of these gases, like burning fossil fuels for electricity, heat, or transportation, or by making “sinks” that collect and store these gases better (such as the oceans, forests, and soil). In the past few years, the CERF and the CBPFs have helped a lot with climate-related emergencies[xii]. Since its inception in 2006, CERF has given more than $2 billion to help with emergencies caused by climate change. It has given about $900 million to resolve problems caused by droughts, $500 million to deal with floods, and $300 million to tackle issues related to storms[xiii]. Since 2015, climate-related shocks have cost CBPFs more than $543 million. One substantial effect of how the pooled funds handle climate-related emergencies is that they now make distributions as an aspect of the Anticipatory Action Frameworks and include early action in their allocations to the CERF and CBPF. This means that action can be taken before the worst part of a reliable climate shock to help vulnerable populations.[xiv]
As of November 2022, nine countries, including Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ethiopia, Malawi, Nepal, Niger, the Philippines, and Somalia, have set up Anticipatory Action frameworks. Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Nepal, Niger, and Somalia have already been activated, and another framework is being made in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Madagascar. The $27 million from CERF went to Ethiopia and Somalia because they had Anticipatory Action frameworks to deal with drought. The allocations were made because of predictions of rain and expected rises in food insecurity. People were able to get help before the rains stopped, and 345,000 people in Somalia and 890,000 people in Ethiopia were helped. By the repair and development of boreholes and wells, the distribution of seeds resistant to drought, the early identification of disease outbreaks, and the provision of financial aid for education to keep kids in school, they made sure that people would continue to have access to water.[xv]
A large investment is needed in humanitarian programs that increase the resilience and adaptability of vulnerable populations and make sure they get financing for climate adaptation to manage the risks they face to address the rising humanitarian climate emergency. Countries having an HRP received less than 18% of the funding for climate adaptation in 2019. For humanitarian programming to be responsive, responsible, and successful, all those who are impacted by climate change must be included. Climate change will continue to be a major factor driving humanitarian needs if policy, preventive, and mitigation measures are not put in place now. Since without adaptation, economies, food security, and global stability are at risk, the UN Secretary-General has encouraged world leaders to spend as much in adaptation as they do in mitigation.
Conclusion & Recommendations
Humanitarian help can only be a terribly inadequate temporary band-aid. There is an urgent need for leaders throughout the globe to make wiser choices and investments to deal with these issues in a deeply rooted manner. There are thought to be many more options available. Researchers and organizers in the most vulnerable nations will have much more imaginative and intelligent ideas for mitigating and adapting to climate change threats along with a stringent implementation mechanism.
The recommendations put forth by the author include: first, increase adaptation funds on a larger scale to strengthen community resilience and to avoid, prepare for, and react to escalating humanitarian catastrophes; second, the ability of many nations to react to climate-related catastrophes is improving, and the number of fatalities from disasters worldwide has been progressively declining. Investment in preparation, early warning, and resilience-building initiatives must continue and be increased globally; third, science and technological advancements are improving the ability to foresee climate-related catastrophes, guiding proactive responses, and enabling quicker action when a catastrophe is imminent; fourth, in order to respond quickly and recover more quickly, the most vulnerable nations require increased access to contingency funding and insurance; and last, the activities of international financial institutions must account for overlapping risks. A recent IMF and World Bank assessment identified a systemic risk to the global economy from debt loads, climate change, and environmental degradation.
Bibliography
Articles
1. Essam El-Hinnawi, ‘Environmental refugees’
2. Alex Randall, ‘Environmental refugees: who are they, definition and numbers’
3. Norman Myers, ‘Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century’
4. African Development Bank, ‘Poverty and Climate Change’
5. The World Bank, ‘Afghanistan: Disaster Risk Management & Resilience Program’
6. Regan Sapkota ‘VRA of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management’
7. Pete Spink, ‘Climate Change Drives Migration in Conflict-Ridden Afghanistan’
8. World Bank Group, ‘Climate Risk Country Profile Afghanistan’
9. UNICEF, ‘Humanitarian Needs Overview’
10. Prevention Web, ’The Climate Crisis is a humanitarian crisis’
11. OCHA Services, ‘Humanitarian Action Analysing needs and response’
12. United Nations, ‘2021 CERF Annual Results Report’
13. United Nations, ‘2021 CERF Annual Results Report’
Weblinks
(World Cat, 1985) https://www.worldcat.org/title/environmental-refugees/oclc/925708078 accessed 12 March 2023
(Climate Migration Org) https://climatemigration.org.uk/environmental-refugees-definition-numbers/ accessed 12 March 2023
(National Library of Medicine, 2002) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692964/ accessed 12 March 2023
(OECD) https://www.oecd.org/env/cc/2502872.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
The World Bank, 2017) https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/afghanistan-disaster-risk-management-and-resilience-program accessed 12 March 2023
(Can South Asia, 2020) https://cansouthasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Climate-change-induced-migration-in-Afghanistan_compressed.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
(Climate Knowledge Portal, 2021) https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/15396A-WB_Afghanistan%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/15726/file/hno_2022_final_version_210222.pdf.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
(Prevention Web, 2022) https://www.preventionweb.net/news/climate-crisis-humanitarian-crisis accessed 12 March 2023
(Humanitarian Action, 2022) https://humanitarianaction.info/article/climate-crisis-humanitarian-crisis accessed 12 March 2023
(CERF UN, 2021) https://cerf.un.org/sites/default/files/resources/CERF%20Annual%20Results%20Report%202021_1.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
(CERF UN, 2021) https://cerf.un.org/sites/default/files/resources/CERF%20Annual%20Results%20Report%202021_1.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
[i] Essam El-Hinnawi, ‘Environmental refugees’ (World Cat, 1985) https://www.worldcat.org/title/environmental-refugees/oclc/925708078 accessed 12 March 2023
[ii] Ibid.
[iii] Alex Randall, ‘Environmental refugees: who are they, definition and numbers’ (Climate Migration Org) https://climatemigration.org.uk/environmental-refugees-definition-numbers/ accessed 12 March 2023
[iv] Norman Myers, ‘Environmental refugees: a growing phenomenon of the 21st century’ (National Library of Medicine, 2002) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1692964/ accessed 12 March 2023
[v] Nina Larson, ‘UN confirms 2022 among eight hottest years on record’ (Phys Org, 2023) https://phys.org/news/2023-01-hottest-years.html accessed 12 March 2023
[vi] African Development Bank, ‘Poverty and Climate Change’ (OECD) https://www.oecd.org/env/cc/2502872.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
[vii] The World Bank, ‘Afghanistan: Disaster Risk Management & Resilience Program’ (The World Bank, 2017) https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/afghanistan-disaster-risk-management-and-resilience-program accessed 12 March 2023
[viii] Regan Sapkota ‘VRA of Disaster Risk Reduction and Management’ (Research Gate, 2022) https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358394714_VRA_of_Disaster_Risk_Reduction_and_Management accessed 12 March 2023
[ix] Pete Spink, ‘Climate Change Drives Migration in Conflict-Ridden Afghanistan’ (Can South Asia, 2020) https://cansouthasia.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Climate-change-induced-migration-in-Afghanistan_compressed.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
[x] World Bank Group, ‘Climate Risk Country Profile Afghanistan’ (Climate Knowledge Portal, 2021) https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-05/15396A-WB_Afghanistan%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
[xi] UNICEF, ‘Humanitarian Needs Overview’ (UNICEF, 2022) https://www.unicef.org/mena/media/15726/file/hno_2022_final_version_210222.pdf.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
[xii] Prevention Web, ’The Climate Crisis is a humanitarian crisis’ (Prevention Web, 2022) https://www.preventionweb.net/news/climate-crisis-humanitarian-crisis accessed 12 March 2023
[xiii] OCHA Services, ‘Humanitarian Action Analysing needs and response’ (Humanitarian Action, 2022) https://humanitarianaction.info/article/climate-crisis-humanitarian-crisis accessed 12 March 2023
[xiv] Ibid.
[xv] United Nations, ‘2021 CERF Annual Results Report’ (CERF UN, 2021) https://cerf.un.org/sites/default/files/resources/CERF%20Annual%20Results%20Report%202021_1.pdf accessed 12 March 2023
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